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Putting Low Impact Development to Work

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Research low impact principles and techniques. Detailed design manuals for LID techniques and applications are available from public and nonprofit sources. Many organizations publish case studies of low impact projects, with sizing details, monitoring data, and cost information.

Find opportunities to apply LID techniques. Where appropriate, recommend simple low impact techniques such as swales, bioretention cells, or simply disconnecting downspouts from the stormwater system. Educate your clients about LID and the benefits of these techniques.

Educate local boards and regulators. While interest in LID is on the rise, many boards and regulators are not familiar with the principles. Provide local officials and board members with information about LID to improve trust and communication during the regulatory review.

Team up with experts. Some firms in Massachusetts have extensive experience with application of low impact techniques. Find opportunities to partner with them as a learning experience.

Help pass a stormwater bylaw. As communities draft stormwater bylaws, it is important that they be structured to permit and encourage low impact development. Engineers and other consultants should be involved in this process to ensure that the bylaw is workable and provides predictability for developers.

Benefits of Low Impact Development

Cost-effective compliance with stormwater standards. Low impact developments can meet rate, recharge, and quality standards with less investment in stormwater “hardscaping.” LID techniques are especially effective at treating and infiltrating runoff from smaller storms.

Opportunities for creative site design. The low impact approach involves planners, engineers, and landscape architects in a comprehensive analysis and design process, fostering creative solutions. Designers benefit from the flexibility provided by narrower roadways, smaller parking areas, and LID techniques that also help to satisfy site landscaping and open space requirements.

High-value developments. Increasingly, clients are looking to add “green building” components to their projects; LID is a cost-effective way to increases a project’s environmental sustainability. The emphasis on preservation of natural areas creates attractive, marketable developments that enhance a portfolio.

Applicability to retrofits. Low impact techniques provide communities and property owners with opportunities to reduce runoff through retrofits, before they resort to expensive storm sewer upgrades.

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Creating a “Park Once” District

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Less Driving, More Walking

Even in places where most people drive to their destinations, the most successful downtowns will feature sidewalks full of pedestrians, walking between the barber and the bank, the doctor’s office and the post office, stopping for lunch and doing some shopping. Many trips but only one parking space. This is sometimes called a “park once” district, because people are encouraged to park in one place and then make stops on foot rather then driving from one destination to another within the district, as you would with a car-oriented strip mall area. Creating the type of environment where its easy for people to walk between destinations involves both good urban design and parking policies. If each destination is required to provide its own off-street parking, and each building may have parking on all sides, dead zones of surface parking lots are created between destinations that make walking distances longer and walking experiences less pleasant, so that people have every incentive to get back in the car to go a few stores down. 

Strategies

Reduce scattered surface parking lots:

  • Centralize parking facilities by allowing or requiring developers to pay into a fund to be used for building public parking rather than providing their own on-site parking (see fees-in-lieu).
  • Allow redevelopment of surface parking lots if the spaces are not needed or if developers / property owners pay into a fund to be used for building public parking in the future (see fees-in-lieu).
  • Reduce or eliminate minimum parking requirements for some or all uses downtown.
  • Count on-street parking towards minimum parking requirements (see flexible minimum requirements).
  • Establish maximum allowances for how much parking may be built by use and/or by neighborhood (see parking maximums).
  • Establish flexible parking requirements based on:
    • alternative mode access (especially proximity of transit, but also pedestrian and bicycle facilities)
    • expected demographics of residential developments (age, income, other auto-ownership factors)
    • parking studies providing data to support requests to reduce or increase parking
    • implementation of programs to reduce the need for parking spaces, such as parking cash out, un-bundled parking, shared parking, priority parking for carpools, or car sharing (see parking and transportation demand management)
  • Make parking fit better with a pedestrian environment:
  • Prohibit developers from siting parking between the building and the street (see locating parking strategically).
  • Build parking structures combined with retail or other commercial uses on the ground floor (see wrapping parking structures in active uses).
  • Limit curb cuts so that there are fewer places where cars are crossing the sidewalk.
  • Provide safe, convenient, and comfortable walkways to access parking facilities.
  • Set a high standard for pedestrian protection where vehicles from parking structures exit onto the street.
  • Require screening and/or landscaping in any surface parking lots visible from pedestrian-oriented streets (see landscaping for shade and air quality).

Improve the pedestrian environment generally:

  • Invest in street trees, benches, landscaping, etc.
  • Establish design standards for buildings in the district.
  • Keep streets and sidewalks free of litter.
  • Provide adequate lighting and police / security that people feel safe walking on the street at any time while stores are open.
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Parking, Development Costs, and Affordability

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What’s the Problem?

Building parking spaces adds to the cost of any development. With the cost of constructing parking running from roughly $1,500-$2,000 per space for surface parking in suburban areas to over $20,000 per space for underground parking in urban areas – not counting land costs or opportunity costs – the financial burden of parking can be substantial. [1] For residential developments, the cost of complying with minimum parking requirements can add significantly to the challenge of building affordable housing. Nelson-Nygaard, a transportation planning firm, found that each additional parking space per residential unit reduces the number of units on a typical lot by 20% and increases the cost of a typical unit by 20%. [2] While the potential for spillover due to inadequate parking supply is a legitimate concern, for affordable and senior housing developments, projecting parking demand accurately is especially important. Residents with low incomes, enabling them to qualify for affordable housing, typically have lower auto-ownership rates than the population at large, and therefore less need for parking. If the housing is served by public transportation or is within walking distance of a commercial center there will be even less demand for parking. Seniors are also less likely to drive and to own a car. These lower auto ownership rates should be taken into consideration when setting parking requirements. Residents without cars should also be offered the opportunity to save money because they are not using any parking spaces.

Strategies

To keep down the parking costs associated with affordable housing, establish flexible parking requirements based on:

  • expected demographics of residential developments (age, income, other auto-ownership factors)
  • alternative mode access (especially proximity of transit, but also pedestrian and bicycle facilities)
  • implementation of programs to reduce the need for parking spaces, such as parking cash out, un-bundled parking, shared parking, priority parking for carpools, or car sharing
  • parking studies providing data to support requests to reduce or increase parking
  • Allow residents without cars a discount on their rent, or allow them to rent their spaces to others with a need (see unbundled parking).
  • Avoid deeding parking spaces with units so that they can be bought and sold as needed. As a partial step, consider providing one deeded parking space per unit; residents needing additional parking spaces can rent them from a pool of extra spaces required, with the number required based on the location and local transit options available (see unbundled parking).
  • Allow the housing provider to negotiate with other nearby property owners who may have extra spaces available, overnight for example (see shared parking).
  • Eliminate minimum parking requirements for affordable housing in certain locations.
  • Don’t build affordable housing in isolated locations where all access is by car only.

Sources

  1. Todd Litman, Victoria Transport Policy Institute, “Parking Evaluation: Evaluating Parking Problems, Solutions, Costs, and Benefits”, Online TDM Encyclopedia, https://www.vtpi.org/tdm/tdm73.htm#_Toc18599156.
  2. Jefferey Tumlin, “Getting Parking Right” – Presentation to the Massachusetts Smart Growth Conference December 1, 2006. Available online at www.mass.gov/envir/pdfs/sgconf_B4_tumlin.pdf.
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Local Examples: Waiving Parking Requirements

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Local Example – Ipswich, MA: Waiving Parking Requirements for Some Uses Downtown

Town of Ipswich Zoning Bylaw, VII. OFF-STREET PARKING AND LOADING REGULATIONS

I. Municipal Parking Lot Exemption

Business uses need not provide off-street parking if they are located in the Central Business District or within 500 feet of either the municipally-owned parking spaces in the Market Street Parking Lot (identified as all or part of Lots #226, #228 and #235 on Assessor’s Map 42A and Lot #298A on Assessor’s Map 4113), or the Elm Street/South Main Street Municipal Parking Lot (identified as all or part of Lots #111, #113 and #114 on Assessor’s Map 42A). (Amended by 10/20/03 Special Town Meeting; approved by Attorney General 1/22/04)

Local Example – Salem, MA: Eliminating Minimum Requirements for Some Uses

City of Salem Zoning Ordinance, ARTICLE VII. SUPPLEMENTARY REGULATIONS

Sec.7.3. Off-street parking, uncovered, not included in structure.

(c) Notwithstanding any other provisions of this ordinance, off-street parking shall not be required for any church or other place or worship or secondary school or institution of higher education, with the exception of the State College at Salem where local ordinances shall prevail.
….

(h) The parking requirements for the B-5 District will be as follows:

(1) Nonresidential uses in the B-5 District shall not be required to provide off-street parking since the community will accept the responsibility for nonresidential parking in this district.

(2) New residential dwelling uses in the B-5 District shall provide parking in accordance with the following schedule:

a. Provisions shall be made for not less than one (1) parking space per dwelling unit for existing buildings and one and one-half (1 1/2) parking spaces per dwelling unit for new construction.
b. The parking requirements for rehabilitated buildings may be accommodated by either one (1) or a combination of on-site parking and/or parking at municipal or other parking facilities in the vicinity of the proposed use.
c. The parking requirements for new construction shall be accommodated by on-site parking.
d. All land parcels along the north bank of the North River, specifically parcels 400, 401, 402, 403, 404, 405,406 and 407 as described on Assessor’s Plate 26, shall be required to provide one and one-half (1 1/2) parking spaces per unit. Such spaces shall be on-site. This provision shall apply notwithstanding all other provisions of subsection (g) herein.
e. All municipal or other parking facilities which are used to satisfy the parking requirement must meet the following criteria: The parking facility must be less than one thousand (1,000) feet from the proposed development, the distance to be measured in a straight line from the two (2) closest points between the proposed use and the parking facility.
f. If using a municipal facility, the owner must purchase parking stickers to satisfy the parking requirement.
g. In contrast to all other defined housing, types built under the jurisdiction of the Salem Housing Authority for elderly and/or handicapped persons shall require one-third (1/3) parking space per dwelling unit.

Local Example – Gloucester, MA: Waiving Parking Requirements for Some Uses Downtown

CITY OF GLOUCESTER ZONING ORDINANCE, SECTION IV GENERAL REGULATIONS
Issued June 1, 2002
With Amendments to Date Incorporated

4.1 OFF-STREET PARKING

4.1.1 Intent and Application of Parking Requirements

(a) It is the intention of this Ordinance that all new structures and new building and land uses be provided with sufficient off-street parking spaces to meet the needs of persons making use of such structures and land uses. No permit shall be issued for the erection of a new structure or the enlargement or change of use of an existing structure unless the plans show the specific location and size of the off-street parking required to comply with the regulations set forth in this Ordinance and the means of access to such space from public streets. In the event of the enlargement or change of use of an existing structure, the regulations set forth in this section shall apply only to the area added to the existing structure or to the building or part thereof having a change of use.

(b) Buildings, structures and land uses in existence on the effective date of this ordinance are not subject to these off-street parking requirements and may be rebuilt, altered or repaired, but not enlarged or changed in use without becoming subject to these requirements.

(c) Except for business and municipal uses which occupy more than 10,000 square feet of space and are located in buildings constructed after February 1, 1990, business and municipal uses need not provide off-street parking if they are located within 400 feet of a Municipal Parking Lot/Facility. (Amended 3/2/99)

(d) Residential uses situated above the ground floor in a structure which existed as of February 1, 1990, contains one or more permitted non-residential uses on the ground floor, and which is located in a Central Business (CB) Zoning District, need not provide off-street parking.

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Examples of Recent Local Parking Studies

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Three local examples are provided.

The Belmont, Mass. and Lexington, Mass. parking study examples are studies that target commercial areas and focus exclusively on parking issues.

The Norwood, Mass. example provides a plan that developed a vision and an economic development strategy for one business area in Norwood. Parking issues and improvements were just one of the strategies included.

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Regulating the Duration of On-Street and Public Parking

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Time Limits and Time Period Regulations

In a downtown, mixed use or business district, or other busy area, there are likely to be many different users competing for the same spaces. This makes managing the parking supply and prioritizing certain types of users or trips over others for different parking facilities is critical. To keep prime spaces available for patrons, curb parking can be regulated through time limits (2 hours, 90 minutes, or 30 minutes, for example) and/or meters. Either method requires enforcement. Time limits in particular may require enforcement and outreach so that employees do not simply shuffle their car from one two-hour space to another all day long. Time limits are less likely to generate opposition (except from long-term parkers who are now forced to use less-convenient options), but they also may not solve the parking crunch. Time limits can be used to increase turnover, allowing more cars to park in the same number of spaces over the course of the day, and to prioritize who uses which spaces, but they do not, on their own, significantly reduce demand for parking (charging for parking and transportation demand management strategies can help in this area).

Time Limits

Limits on parking duration can increase parking turnover, so that more cars (and more customers) can use the same number of parking spaces. This can work well in some circumstances, but can also be frustrating for users who outstay their allotted time by a few minutes and are ticketed. (Pricing alternatives intended to discourage long-term parking without the use of time limits are covered below.) In addition to increasing turnover, time limits may have a modest effect on how people choose to travel – a 1997 study of parking behavior in central business districts found that places with less restrictive time limits tended to have more people driving alone (though the time limits are not necessarily causing the difference) [1, p. 18-30]. Time limits can also be combined with meters or other pricing strategies that are more likely to change travel and parking behavior.

The allowable duration for time-limited parking can range from a few minutes in the case of a loading/unloading zone, a pick up/drop off area, or delivery vehicle parking, to 10 or 12 hours for employee or commuter parking. Many communities incorporate a combination of different time limits in different areas to accommodate drivers with different purposes.

One issue with time limits is that employees may park in 2-hour spaces intended for customers and simply move their cars every few hours to avoid ticketing. To address this issue, options include outreach and education to employees on the benefit of leaving desirable spaces open for customers, combining meters or other pricing strategies with time limits to further discourage long-term use of short-term parking, and instituting an employee permit parking program to encourage use of off-street parking facilities.

Time Period Regulations

Regulations prohibiting parking between certain hours are generally used to discourage a particular user group from storing vehicles on the street for long periods of time. No parking in the morning is sometimes used to prevent use of on-street parking by commuters, as an alternative to a resident permit parking program. This is most appropriate where there is little need for residents to store cars on the street during the morning, either because there is sufficient off-street parking or because most people drive to work, and where the commuter parking is mainly due to a train or subway station where most people arrive early and are away from their cars all day. If the spillover parking continues past the morning rush hour, or if parking is due to employees of nearby businesses who can move their cars during the day, a time limit restriction may not achieve the desired effect.

Some communities, including Brookline, Belmont, and Arlington, prohibit parking overnight on the streets. This means residents can’t use on-street parking as their primary place to store their cars. The justification for this is usually a combination of street sweeping and snow clearing concerns, though it should be noted that the same impact can be achieved through designating particular days and times when parking is not allowed to provide for street cleaning, and prohibiting on-street parking only during winter months or only during snow events. Many communities prohibit on-street overnight parking only between certain dates in the winter, or only when a snow emergency has been declared. Additional benefits cited by proponents of year-round overnight parking bans include easier maneuvering of fire trucks in the dark and fewer vehicles being vandalized or broken-into. The disadvantage is an increased need for off-street parking and, because the spaces available for overnight parking often require that vehicles are moved by a certain time in the morning, people must either drive from one parking place to another twice a day or must drive to work when they would otherwise use another form of transportation.

Sources:

1. J. Richard Kuzmyak et al, “Chapter 18 – Parking Management and Supply”, TCRP Report 95: Traveler Response to Transportation System Changes, Transportation Research Board, 2003.

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Landscaped Parking Reserves

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Pave it when, and if, you need it

One way to reduce paved surfaces while addressing uncertainty about parking demand is to require or allow new developments to pave a reduced number of parking spaces, but hold sufficient land in reserve to provide the additional spaces that might be required. As long as the additional parking is not needed, the land can be landscaped or used to provide other valuable amenities such as a playground or park. This approach, sometimes called a parking reserve or landscaped reserve and sometimes referred to as land banking, has several advantages. First, it allays community concerns about the site being able to provide adequate parking. Second, it defers or foregoes entirely the fiscal and environmental costs of building a portion of the required parking. Third, it highlights the tradeoffs between parking and other amenities, such as open space. This can build a constituency of site users and abutters that prefers to keep the land un-paved, and may be willing to take measures to reduce parking demand rather than increase the supply by losing the open space.

Parking reserves can be especially useful for phased developments, where parking demand may grow in stages as the different components of the project come on-line, and for uses where parking demand is uncertain due to unusual operating characteristics or a lack of data. It can also be a valuable tool for fine-tuning parking provisions in water resources protection areas where runoff from excess paved areas may be a special concern. Land banking for parking can be part of a package that allows reduced parking requirements at employment sites in return for Transportation Demand Management (TDM)measures, so that if the employer falls out of compliance with the agreed-upon TDM plan, they may be required to go to the expense of constructing additional parking. Parking reserves are most appropriate for sites in low- to moderate-density areas where land is not a premium and parking is provided in surface lots, and are not recommended for downtown or other higher density districts as they still reduce the potential density of development.

Local examples:
  • The City of Marlborough allows the use of temporary parking reserves in cases where there will be a reduced parking demand for at least a year, such as with a large phased development. Reductions of up to 50% of the requirement are allowed subject to Site Plan approval.
  • In the Town of Dennis, the Planning Board may allow applicants to designate a number of parking spaces as a reserve area that can be converted to parking if needed. No limits are specified in the ordinance as to the maximum reduction allowable, but the applicant must be able to justify the reduction in parking.
  • Several communities have similar regulations allowing parking spaces to be held in reserve, with variations on how the reduction may be authorized, what type of development review is necessary, and the maximum reduction allowed. These are summarized below.
Community Authorizing Body Type of Review Maximum Reduction By-Law Reference
Action Board of Selectmen Site Plan Special Permit 75% Section 10.4.4
Sudbury Board of Selectmen Special Permit 30% Article 3113
Northborough Board of Selectmen Site Plan Special Permit 30% Section 7-20-040, L (5)
Cohasset Planning Board Site Plan Review 33% Section 7.2 (10)
Tewksbury Planning Board Site Plan Special Permit 30% Section 9481
  National examples:
  • Many cities across the country use landscaped reserves, including Portland (OR), Palo Alto (CA), Carmel (CA), Cleveland (OH), and Iowa City (IA). [1]
  • Palo Alto, California allows reductions of up to 50% of minimum parking requirements when the remainder is held as a landscaped reserve. None of the city’s landscaped reserves have later been required for parking. [1]

Additional resources:

  • U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Parking Spaces / Community Places: Finding the Balance Through Smart Growth Solutions, January 2006; p. 21-22. Available as a free download at https://www.epa.gov/smartgrowth/parking.htm, or click here for the PDF.
  • Fitzgerald & Halliday, Inc., Northwest Connecticut Parking Study – Phase II: Model Zoning Regulations for Parking for Northwestern Connecticut, Northwestern Connecticut Council of Governments and Litchfield Hills Council of Elected Officials, September 2003; p. 15. Available as a free download from https://www.fhiplan.com/PDF/NW%20Parking%20Study/NW%20Connecticut%20Parki… or by clicking here.
  • Christopher V. Forinash, et al., “Smart Growth Alternatives to Minimum Parking Requirements“, Proceedings from the 2nd Urban Street Symposium, July 28-30, 2003. Available as a free download from https://www.urbanstreet.info/ or click here for the PDF.
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Local Examples: Flexible Parking Requirements

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Local Example – Newton, MA: Reduced Requirements for Low-Income and Elderly Housing

City of Newton: REVISED ORDINANCES OF NEWTON, MASSACHUSETTS, 2001

PART II. REVISED ORDINANCES, Chapter 30. Zoning

ARTICLE III. PARKING AND LOADING FACILITIES

Sec. 30-19. Parking and loading facility requirements.

(d) Number of Parking Stalls. The minimum number of parking stalls to be supplied for each type of building or land use shall be in accordance with the following requirements. Where the computation results in a fractional number, the fraction shall be counted as one stall.

(2) Two parking stalls shall be provided for each dwelling unit in an apartment house, garden apartment, or attached dwellings, provided that the board of aldermen may grant a special permit in accordance with the procedure provided in section 30-24 for the construction of apartment houses, garden apartments, attached dwellings with a lesser parking stall requirement for each dwelling unit if circumstances warrant such modification, but in no case less than one and one-quarter (1-1/4) parking stalls per dwelling unit, except multi-family housing for low-income or elderly persons built under state or federal housing programs. For such public housing projects, one parking stall for each two (2) low-income dwelling units not reserved for the elderly and one parking stall for each four (4) dwelling units reserved for the elderly shall be provided.

Local Example – Braintree, MA: Flexible Minimum Requirements

Town of Braintree Zoning Bylaws, ARTICLE VIII OFF-STREET PARKING AND LOADING

135-803 DECREASES IN PARKING REQUIREMENTS.

A. A decrease in the number of off-street parking spaces required by this Section may be granted as a condition for the issuance of a Special Permit or a Site Plan Review provided that the following criteria have been met:

1. The intent of this Section is preserved.
2. The amount of off-street parking to be provided will be sufficient to serve the uses for which it is intended.
3. The decrease in required off-street parking is based on a parking study prepared by a registered professional engineer. Said study shall include, at a minimum, the following:

a. Size and type of uses or activities on site;
b. Composition of tenancy on site;
c. Rate of parking turnover;d. Peak traffic and parking loads to be encountered;
e. Local parking habits;
f. Availability of public transportation.

B. Should the Special Permit Granting Authority (SPGA) allow a decrease in the amount of required off-street parking, the SPGA shall require that a portion of the site be reserved to meet the off-street parking spaces required by this Section. This reserved area shall not be developed and shall be either landscaped or maintained in a natural state. Said area shall not contribute towards the open space requirements as set in Section 135-701.

Local Example – Belmont, MA: Flexible Parking Requirements, Siting, and Bike Parking

Town of Belmont Zoning By-Law, Section 5. General Regulations
Amended through 11/13/2006, Approved 1/9/2007

5.1. Off-Street Parking and Loading

5.1.1. Number of Spaces

b) The number of spaces may be reduced to less than that stipulated below if, in acting on Design and Site Plan Review, the Planning Board determines that a smaller number would be adequate for all parking needs because of such special circumstances as:

1. shared parking for uses having peak parking demands at different times
2. unusual age or other characteristics of site users, or
3. user sponsored demand reduction devices such as car pooling.

c) In the Local Business III Districts, legal on-street parking may be credited towards meeting these requirements if located between the premises side lot lines on the same side of the street.

5.1.3 Parking and Loading Area Location and Design

a) Non-residential.

Required parking for nonresidential uses shall be either on the same premises as the activity it serves or on a separate parcel if the parcel is located within 400 feet of the building entrance to be served and is in a zoning district permitting or allowing by Special Permit the use it serves.

Parking facilities for six or more cars serving nonresidential uses shall have no elements, other than driveways approximately perpendicular to the street and parking area plantings, located in the area between the street line and the front setback line.

…

h) Bicycle Racks.

For premises requiring 40 or more parking spaces, bicycle racks facilitating locking shall be provided to accommodate one bicycle per 20 parking spaces required or fraction thereof.

Local Example – Norwood, MA: Flexible Parking Requirements and Bicycle Parking

Town of Norwood Zoning Bylaws, 5100 PARKING REGULATIONS

5110 Number of Parking Spaces

5112. Reductions Based on Demand

The number of spaces may be reduced to less than that stipulated below if authorized on special permit by the board of appeals, to be granted only if, following public hearing and consultation with the inspector of buildings, town engineer and town planner, the board makes written determination that a smaller number would be adequate for all parking needs because of such special circumstances as shared parking for uses having peak parking demands at different times, unusual age or other characteristics of site users, or user-sponsored demand reduction devices such as car-pooling.

5113. Special District Reductions [Rev. 3/4/91]

In the Central Business, General Business, and Limited Business districts the following provisions shall apply.

a. Off-street parking need be provided to serve nonresidential uses in those districts only if the number of required spaces exceeds twenty for uses in the central business district or five for uses in the general or limited business districts.

b. Legal on-street parking may be credited towards meeting these requirements if located between the premises, side lot lines on the same side of the street.

c. In the central business district only, the required number of spaces for nonresidential uses shall be 50% of the number indicated in Section 5114.

…

5126. Bicycle Racks

For premises requiring 40 or more parking spaces, bicycle racks facilitating locking shall be provided to accommodate one bicycle per 20 parking spaces required or fraction thereof.

Local Example – Weymouth, MA: Counting On-street Parking Towards Requirements

City of Weymouth – Chapter 120 ZONING, June 2000, ARTICLE XVII Off-Street Parking
Section 120-70. Location requirements.

[Amended April 1971 ATM by Art. 47, approved 8-24-1971]

The off-street parking spaces required by this section shall be as follows:

….

D. In the event that off-street parking spaces cannot be reasonably provided on the same lot within the Neighborhood Center District to accommodate nonresidential uses only, the Board of Zoning Appeals may grant exceptions to allow provision for counting on-street parking spaces within a radius of 150 feet, provided that it is demonstrated that the additional demand for such spaces can be reasonably met without placing an undue burden on existing facilities already relying on such spaces. [Added May 1983 ATM by Art. 48, approved 8-26-1983]

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Charging for On-street and Public Parking

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Charging for parking is one of the simplest ways to manage parking demand, but it is not necessarily easy to implement. Although parking is never really free – the costs are just subsumed into the price of goods and services – drivers pay no charge for parking for 99% of their trips [1, p. 8]. Moving towards a “user pays” system of parking nearly always generates at least some resistance, but that does not necessarily mean that the costs outweigh the benefits or that the opponents will outnumber the supporters. Figuring out whether, where, when, and how much to charge for parking is a question of local politics as much as any other consideration, but the recommendations below can provide some input into the decision-making process.

The question of whether to implement or increase charges for on-street parking usually arises when demand exceeds supply (charging for parking when there isn’t high demand is generally a bad idea – pricing should be used to manage the parking supply efficiently, not simply to raise revenue). There are many ways to address a mismatch between supply and demand, including charging for parking in certain areas. It is a good idea to start by assessing where, when, and to what extent parking demand exceeds supply by conducting a parking survey (see how to do a parking study for more information).

Armed with a better understanding of the problem, you can check out the resource describing how to deal with Not Enough Parking.

Won’t Charging for Parking Deter Shoppers and Hurt Business?

Many communities fear that implementing a charge for parking on the street and/or in public lots in downtown or other commercial districts will drive away customers, who will choose to shop at a mall or strip-mall outside the downtown instead. This is certainly a valid concern, but it is not a foregone conclusion. To understand whether charging for parking at the curb and/or in off-street municipal lots will help or hurt your community, there are a number of things to consider.

  • If free on-street parking means there are never any spaces available, charging for parking can improve business. The inability to find a parking space can be at least as much of a deterrent as the need to pay for one, so if charging a nominal fee for parking means that there are usually a few spaces available rather than there rarely being any spaces available, this may make the area more attractive to customers.
  • In order for charging for parking to be effective, it must free up some parking spaces, which means it must impact travel behavior and reduce demand for parking. The question is whether discouraging people from parking discourages them from visiting the area, or simply encourages them to get there another way. Some possible impacts of charging for parking are given below. Whether potential shoppers who might be deterred by the price of parking are driven away or whether they simply find other ways to get there will depend in part on the availability and appeal of alternate ways to get to the area.
  • Some visitors may choose to shorten their stay, increasing turnover and parking availability, though potentially reducing casual shopping.
  • If there are free parking areas that are less convenient, some people may choose to park a bit farther away rather than pay for parking (see “shuttle service and offsite parking” on this page for more information). If there are nearby neighborhoods where on-street parking is unregulated, spillover parking may become more of an issue (for information on potential solutions to this issue, see addressing spillover).
  • People who live near the area may choose to walk or bike downtown rather than drive if the sidewalks and bike facilities are good (see “bike parking and amenities” on this page for more information). Encouraging residential development downtown can provide a customer base that can easily walk to stores.
  • People planning to shop with friends or family may choose to carpool rather than driving separately to meet downtown (see “priority parking for carpools” on this page for more information).
  • If public transportation provides good access to the area, some people may choose to ride public transit rather than drive (see “providing subsidized transit passes” on this page for more information).
  • Some people may choose not to make the trip at all, or to drive somewhere else to do their shopping.
  • If revenue from parking meters is re-invested in the district, providing additional maintenance for the roads and sidewalks, street sweeping, streetlights, etc, the area may attract more people and increase business (see “how to use the revenue” on this page). People will also be more likely to support a proposal to install or increase the rates on meters if some of the increase in revenue will be used to benefit the district.
  • Charging for parking in public lots or garages while on-street parking is free can mean that people circle the streets searching for on-street parking rather than paying to park. If off-street parking is priced, generally speaking on-street parking should be priced too.
  • Part of people’s resistance to the installation of parking meters is due to the method of payment, rather than the need to pay. While standard parking meters are cheapest and easiest to install, many people find them frustrating because they have to have the right coins and can’t get money back if they overestimate how long they’ll be staying. New parking payment technologies can make payment easier, however, which may reduce resistance and increase collection.
  • A large part of whether charging for parking will negatively impact businesses depends on how attractive the district is relative to other options. If there is a popular mall a short drive away providing many of the same goods and services with free parking, that can increase the likelihood that people will go elsewhere. On the other hand, if the downtown provides enough amenities and attractions – such as restaurants, bars, and appealing outdoor spaces – that cannot be replaced by a mall or isolated shopping center, the downtown is more likely to succeed.

An effective outreach campaign explaining the reasons for and benefits of implementing paid parking and the right rate structure and payment options can help neutralize resistance.

Setting the Rates

There are several issues to consider in setting the rates for on-street or municipal off-street parking:

  • Costs and Total Revenue

Massachusetts General Law stipulates that the fees charged at on-street parking meters “shall be established and charged at such rates that the revenue there from shall not exceed in the aggregate the necessary expenses incurred by such city or town for the acquisition, installation, maintenance and operation of parking meters and the regulation of parking and other traffic activities incident thereto.” (M.G.L. Ch.40, §22A) This may or may not become a limiting factor for a community in setting parking rates, but it is advisable that communities track all expenses related to parking, including enforcement, maintenance, cleaning, necessary safety improvements, etc. Parking rates should be set to recover as much as possible of this total cost.

  • Rates in Comparable Locations

Parking rates that are wildly out-of-sync with the rates charged in similar locations in nearby communities can increase the risk that the cost of parking will encourage people to take their business elsewhere. This does not mean that rates must exactly match those of the surrounding communities, especially if those places have less demand for parking, but it is advisable to factor in the rate structures that drivers encounter in other similar places.

  • Rates for Other Parking Options

Many people prefer to park in on-street parking rather than an off-street lot or garage because of the convenience. If off-street parking is limited or is primarily available as pay lots or garages while on-street parking is free, drivers will tend to circle blocks repeatedly looking for an open space on the street rather than paying to park. This congests streets with unnecessary traffic and pollutes the air with unnecessary emissions. It also means that expensive garages in which the municipality may have invested a significant amount of money may be underutilized and generate less revenue than expected. In this type of situation, implementing charges for on-street parking is critical to free up on-street spaces, encourage drivers to use pay lots or garages, and reduce “cruising” for parking. If off-street parking is priced, on-street parking should be priced as well, and should ideally be priced higher than structured parking. If off-street parking is mostly free surface lots and there is rarely a shortage of spaces available, low prices may be effective in encouraging people to use off-street options where available if convenience is not a top priority.

  • Rate Structure

Charges for prime on-street parking spaces can be combined with programs offering the first hour free or parking validation through local businesses in off-street pay lots or garages in the area (if these have capacity available). To encourage turnover and discourage long-term parking, rates can be set to rise for longer stays, e.g. $1 per hour for the first hour, $2 per hour for the second hour, $3 per hour for each additional hour. This is also a way to encourage shorter stays without time limits – people can stay as long as they want but it will get progressively more expensive. This allows them to pay a few dollars extra if they stay longer than expected rather than risking a parking ticket. This rate structure is only effective with advanced payment technology that can charge a total when the driver leaves rather than requiring pre-payment. Whatever the fare structure, it should be clearly explained on the meter or a sign easily visible from the parking space.

For long term parking, several sources discouraged offering discounted monthly passes or rates, and suggested offering books of daily passes instead so that people would save money for every day they didn’t drive, rather than feeling like they should “get their money’s worth” out of a monthly pass.

  • Hours of Operation

The hours when drivers must pay for parking should correspond to the hours when demand for parking exceeds the supply of spaces (see how to do a parking study for information on assessing demand). It is common for parking in metered areas to be free on evenings and weekends, but in districts with significant shopping and/or restaurant traffic, these may be the busiest times. The times that meters are in operation can vary from district to district or street to street based on the hours of demand and types of uses present, but if this is the case, extra effort should be made to provide information to drivers of the options available and the different hours and rates, such as through a map or website.

How to Use the Revenue

In Massachusetts, the use of parking meter revenue is governed by M.G.L. Chapter 40 §22A-C. These sections generally provide that the revenue may be used for expenses related to the meters themselves, acquisition and maintenance of off-street parking areas, and for parking and traffic control. Revenue from the meter receipts must be kept in a separate account and accessed through appropriation.

One of the national best practices being discussed and promoted around the country is called a “Parking Benefit District“. This is a program through which the city or town returns all or a portion of the parking revenue from meters or non-resident passes generated in a neighborhood or district to an entity representing the district, such as a Business Improvement District, for extra maintenance, security, beautification projects, etc. [1] (For more on Business Improvement Districts in Massachusetts, see the Massachusetts Department of Housing and Community Development’s website on the topic: https://www.mass.gov/dhcd/components/cs/1PrgApps/BID/default.HTM.)

Current state law does not allow for parking benefit district programs per se, but a municipality may be able to make an agreement with a neighborhood or district that some of the revenue collected from parking meters in that area would be spent (by the municipality through the appropriations process) on parking- and traffic-related maintenance, improvements, or activities in the area as specified under M.G.L. Chapter 40 §22A-C. This would primarily be useful if the district is resistant to implementing paid parking and the municipality is willing to reinvest a portion of the revenue generated into the district.

Sources:

  1. Donald Shoup, The High Cost of Free Parking (2005), Planners Press, American Planning Association. Available for purchase from https://www.planning.org/APAStore/Search/Default.aspx?p=1814.
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Parking Spillover

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Spillover: Vehicles parked where they’re not wanted

When there is a shortage of parking available in one area or for a particular use, drivers may end up parking where they are not wanted – in residential neighborhoods, in prime downtown street spaces, in neighboring private lots, etc. In some cases, this spillover of parking may occur frequently or even daily (for example near a train station, a public park, or downtown). If the spillover parking tends to occur at a time when the residents or other preferential users do not generally need the spaces – such as in the middle of the day in a residential neighborhood – then it may not a be serious problem. But if spillover is making it difficult for residents to park in their own neighborhood, using up all available visitor parking, or making it difficult for downtown shoppers to find a parking space, those conflicts will need to be managed. In other cases, there may be special events that cause spillover, such as major sporting events or the biggest annual shopping days. These special events call for special parking plans and usually require the use of remote parking lots, normally used for other purposes, with walk or special shuttle access back to the event. They will also require restrictions on parking in neighborhoods and unauthorized lots and enforcement of those restrictions for the duration of the event.

Spillover is the problem that parking minimums are usually designed to prevent. Minimums set high enough can usually prevent spillover parking, but at a cost of spaces that go unused during most time periods, incurring fiscal, environmental, and aesthetic costs. As mentioned under the problem of too much parking, this land could otherwise be devoted to more productive uses if supply was better matched to demand. While adding more parking or increasing required minimums where shortages occur is one way to prevent spillover, there are many other ways to address the issue that may be more beneficial to your community.

It is a good idea to start by evaluating the parking situation carefully. When does spillover occur? What destination is attracting the vehicles that are causing the spillover parking? Is there designated parking for that destination? Is it completely full at times when the spillover is occurring? Which street faces or lots are being impacted by the spillover? Is there currently any regulation on parking in those areas (pricing, time limits, or restrictions on use)? Is there other parking (public or private) nearby that would be better suited to handling overflow parking demand during spillover periods? It may be necessary or desirable to conduct a full parking study to find the answers to these questions. In this case, the study area should include both the area that could be causing the spillover problems as well as the neighborhoods and lots where the spillover problems have been noticed. Residents and property owners in both areas should be involved in collecting and reviewing the data and in deciding on the best response. Basic guidance on how to do a parking study and examples of some recent local studies are available in this toolkit.

Strategies

Once current demand is known any or all of the strategies below may be appropriate.

  • Require or encourage the development of overflow parking plans for peak periods and special events, especially in cases where minimum parking requirements have been lowered.
  • Encourage or develop off-site parking for overflow, with shuttle service if needed. For example, park and ride lots may serve as off-site lots to access downtowns if shuttle service is provided. (See off-site parking and shuttle service.)
  • If there are private parking lots or garages nearby that have extra capacity during peak times, allow property owners to lease the extra spaces or charge the public to use them during the site’s off-peak hours (see shared parking).
  • Require or encourage the establishments generating the spillover parking to participate in programs to reduce parking demand and traffic, such as car sharing, bicycle parking and amenities, subsidized transit passes, etc. (see parking and transportation demand management).
  • Develop a residential permit parking program. Only nearby residents and their guests may park on the streets or in certain lots, during the entire day or during peak spillover periods. (See residential permit parking.)
  • Combine a residential permit parking program with a parking benefit district, so that residents can allow certain outside users to park for a fee, and can receive the benefits of the revenue generated.
  • Prohibit all parking on neighborhood streets during peak hours. Without a residential parking program, for example, this may be the only way to prevent overflow parking during special events. (See time restrictions.)
  • Establish time limits for parking on impacted streets. In residential neighborhoods, this can be combined with a residential permit parking program to allow outside users to park for a limited time, while allowing residents to park at any time, or can be implemented on commercial streets if long-term users are preventing shoppers and customers from finding short-term parking.
  • Charge for on-street parking in commercial areas if businesses are being impacted by commuter parking. If there are already meters for on-street parking, raise hourly rates, or allow meter rates to vary with demand (see charging for parking). To make this more palatable, make payment easy using advanced meter technology, and/or establish a parking benefit district to reinvest part or all of the revenue from parking fees in maintenance or improvements for the district where it is generated.
  • Increase enforcement of time limits, permit parking, meters, etc.
  • Discourage shop owners and employees from parking in front of their stores (see employee parking programs).
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